Fall of the Roman Republic
The Roman Republic (509-27 BCE) gave way to autocracy through a century of violence and upheaval.
Structural Problems
Wealth inequality: Conquests enriched the elite while small farmers lost land.
Political gridlock: The Senate resisted reform; tribunes and assemblies clashed.
Private armies: Generals raised armies loyal to themselves, not Rome.
The Gracchi Brothers (133-121 BCE)
Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus proposed land reform. The Senate responded with violence — both were killed.
This broke a taboo: political murder became acceptable.
Marius and Sulla (107-78 BCE)
Marius: Reformed the army, accepting landless soldiers. Armies now depended on generals for land grants after service.
Sulla: Marched on Rome itself (88 BCE) — unprecedented. As dictator, he murdered thousands of opponents (proscriptions).
The First Triumvirate (60-53 BCE)
Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus divided power among themselves. When Crassus died, Caesar and Pompey became rivals.
Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon (49 BCE) triggered civil war.
Caesar's Dictatorship and Death
Caesar's perpetual dictatorship ended with his assassination (44 BCE). But the Republic was already dead.
The Second Triumvirate (43-33 BCE)
Octavian (Caesar's heir), Antony, and Lepidus formed an alliance. They defeated Caesar's assassins, then turned on each other.
Octavian Becomes Augustus (27 BCE)
Octavian defeated Antony at Actium (31 BCE). The Senate granted him the title "Augustus" — first Roman Emperor.
He maintained republican forms while holding total power. The Republic was over; the Empire had begun.
Related Reading
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