Renouncer paths emerge in ancient India, redefining suffering, ritual, and liberation through Buddhism and Jainism.
Urban growth along the Ganges reshapes society and elevates new religious questions beyond Brahmin ritual.
Forest thinkers probe reality, self, and unity of brahman and atman, offering alternative paths from ritual.
Siddhartha’s awakening leads to Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, a practical route from suffering.
Mahavira’s life and Jain ethics center on nonviolence, karma, and the doctrine of the jiva.
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